France (William the Conqueror)-England (Harold II).
Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066). Most decisive battle on English soil which led to the successful conquest by the Normans. Harold II died in battle.
Began rule of a dynasty of Norman Kings and almost complete replacement of English nobility by Normans, Bretons, and Flemings.
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Christians-Turks.
Holy Wars authorized by the Pope; fought against infidels in the East, heretics who threatened Catholic unity, and against Christian lay powers who opposed the Papacy.
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Mongols-N China, Kara-Chitai Empire.
Subjugation of hostile tribes - Naimans, Tanguts, and Turkish Uigurs.
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Sicily-France.
Massacre of the French in Sicily marked the beginning of revolt of Sicilians against Charles of Anjou.
War of Sicilian Vespers ensued. Angevins supported by papacy, Italian Guelphs, and Philip II of France, while Aragonese helped by Italian Ghibellines. James II ascended to throne, made peace with papacy, France, and Angevins (to whom he renounced Sicily) by Treaty of Anagni.
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England-France.
Edward III claimed French throne in 1340 and styled himself æKing of England and FranceÆ. Traditional rivalries exploded into a dynastic struggle. 1415 Battle of Agincourt - Henry V led overwhelming victory over French.
In 1417 English then began systematic conquest of Normandy, a task beyond their resources. Evicted from Guyenne (1453) which reduced EnglandÆs French territories to Calais (lost in 1558) and the Channel Islands. However, the title of King of France was not relinquished until 1801.
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Turks-Byzantine Empire.
Collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Since 1261, when Constantinople had been retaken from Latin rule by Michael VII Paleologus, the Byzantine Empire had been threatened by growing power of Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor.
In 1422 Ottoman Sultan of Turkey Murad II laid siege to the city. This failed but attempt thirty years later by Mehmed II succeeded. Constantinople fell in 1453. Last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI Paleologus died in battle.
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Civil wars in England.
Between two rival factions of the House of Plantagenet - York (white rose) and Lancaster (red rose).
Began when Richard, Duke of York, claimed protectorship of crown after King Henry VIÆs mental breakdown and ended with Henry TudorÆs defeat of Richard III in Battle of Bosworth. Wars escalated by gentry and by aristocratic feuds.
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Catholics-Huguenots.
Caused by growth of Calvinism, noble factionalism, and weak royal government. From 1550s Calvinist or Huguenot numbers increased, fostered by missionary activities of Geneva. Noble factions of Bourbons, Guise, and Montmorency were split by religion as well as by family interests.
Civil wars were encouraged by Philip IIÆs support of Catholic Guise faction and by Elizabeth IÆs aid to Huguenots. They ended when Henry of Navarre returned to Catholicism and crushed the Guise Catholic League.
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France-Habsburg rulers.
Power struggle between Kings of France and Habsburg rulers of Holy Roman Empire and Spain. War fuelled by conflict between Calvinism and Catholicism, and also by the underlying constitutional conflict between Holy Roman Emperor and the German Princes.
With Frederick VÆs defeat (1620) and intervention by other powers (such as Sweden, Denmark, and France), the conflict intensified and spread. Spain collapsed and left the emperor isolated. Peace negotiations opened and ended German war at the Peace of Westphalia.
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Scotland-England.
Two wars between Charles I and Scotland caused by Charles IÆs unpopular policies towards the Scottish kirk.
Resulted in English defeats and bankruptcy for Charles who was then forced to call the Short and Long Parliaments in 1640, bringing to an end his personal rule.
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Charles I-Parliamentarians.
Parliamentary opposition to Royal policies. First battle at Edgehill (October 1642), but neither side victorious. Royalists then threatened London, the ParliamentariansÆ stronghold. By autumn the North and West were in their hands.
Crucial event was 1643 alliance of Parliament with the Scots. This increased military strength helped the parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, defeat the Royalists at Marston Moor. 1646 saw the end of first civil war with CharlesÆ surrender to the Scots at Newark in May.
1646-8 negotiations between parliament and King began. August 1647 army presented King with Head of Proposals asking for religious tolerance and parliamentary control of the armed forces. Charles made secret pact with the Scots, promising to establish Presbyterianism in England.
Scots invaded England and were only repulsed in Battle of Preston. Around 100,000 men died in the two wars (1 in 10 of the adult male population). Charles brought to trial by Cromwell (who was also signatory to his death warrant) and executed January 1649.
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Louis XIV-European Alliance.
The third major war of Louis XIV of France in which his expansionist plans were blocked by the alliance led by England, United Provinces (of the Netherlands), and Austrian Habsburgs. The issue underlying the war was the balance of power between Bourbon and Habsburg dynasties. War began when French marched into the Palatinate while Austria was defeating Turks in the East.
Grand alliance of United Provinces, England, Saxony, Bavaria, and Spain, all fearful of French annexations, joined together against France. The war was costly and lengthy. Louis XIV opened negotiations for peace in 1696, and in 1697 Treaty of Rijswijk drawn up. This did not resolve conflict between Habsburgs and Bourbons, nor English and French, both of which erupted again only four years later in the War of Spanish Succession.
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Alliance-Louis XIV.
Alliance of British, Dutch, and Habsburg Emperor against French, supported by Spanish. War arose out of conflict as to succession to throne of Spain following death of childless Charles II. Claimants were England, United Provinces, and France.
When alliance collapsed, the war was concluded by Treaties of Utrecht which divided inheritance among the powers. BritainÆs imperial power grew at the expense of France and Spain.
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Britain-Spain.
Began in 1739 but then merged into the War of Austrian Succession. Anti-Spanish feeling in Britain provoked war as Captain Robert Jenkins claimed Spanish coastguards in the Caribbean cut off his ear.
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Prussia-Austria.
Struggle for mastery of German states. Hostilities prompted by Frederick II of PrussiaÆs seizure of Habsburg province of Silesia. French allied with Bavaria and Spain and later Saxony and Prussia. Austria was supported by Britain who feared FranceÆs hegemony in Europe which would threaten BritainÆs colonial and commercial empire.
After 1744 this developed into a colonial conflict between Britain and the Franco-Spanish bloc. Peace concluded only by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) which preserved Austrian inheritance but also confirmed Prussian inheritance of Silesia
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A major European conflict rooted in the rivalry between Austria and Prussia and the imminent colonial struggle between Britain and France in the New World and the Far East. Hostilities in North America (1754) pre-dated the Diplomatic Revolution in Europe (1756), which created two opposing power blocs: Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony against Prussia, Britain, and Portugal.
British maritime superiority countered Franco-Spanish naval power and prevented an invasion by the French. The European war, precipitated by PrussiaÆs seizure of Saxony, was marked by many notable pitched land battles. Saved from total defeat when Russia switched sides, Frederick II of Prussia retained Silesia in 1763.
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American settlers-Britain.
Insurrection of thirteen of BritainÆs North American colonies. Began as civil war but America was later joined by France (1778), Spain (1779), and Netherlands (1780).
America rejected BritainÆs offer of peace in the civil war conflicts and declared independence. Britain ultimately defeated.
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A series of campaigns between France and neighbouring European states hostile to the Revolution and to French hegemony, merging ultimately with the Napoleonic Wars.
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Fought to preserve French hegemony in Europe. Initially a guarantee for political, social, and economic changes of the Revolution, but increasingly became manifestation of NapoleonÆs territorial ambitions. War began with NapoleonÆs destruction of the Second Coalition (1800).
Britain resumed hostilities (1803), prompting Napoleon to prepare for invasion and encouraging the formation of a Third Coalition. Britain retained naval superiority but Napoleon established territorial domination with the invasions of Spain (1808) and Russia (1812). French finally overwhelmed by the Fourth Coalition and war ended with the Battle of Waterloo {1815).
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France-Britain.
Struggle for the Iberian peninsula which began as Spanish revolt against imposition of NapoleonÆs brother, Joseph, as King of Spain, but developed into bitter conflict, with British forces under Wellington liberating Spain (1811).
Following NapoleonÆs Moscow campaign (1812), French resources were overextended, enabling WellingtonÆs army to invade SW France (1813-14).
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Britain-America
A war between Britain and America, declared by America, on the basis of British conduct towards neutral US shipping during the Napoleonic Wars. The Treaty of Ghent restored peace in 1814.
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Greece-Turkey.
Greece fought alone until 1825 when her cause was seconded by Britain, Russia, and later France. Turks defeated and GreeceÆs independence guaranteed by her allies.
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Britain and France - Russia.
Fought in Crimean Peninsula by Britain and France against Russia. Origins lay in the Russian successes against the Turks in the Black Sea area, and the British and French desire to prevent further Russian expansion westward which threatened the Mediterranean and overland routes to India.
Major battles were fought at the River Alma (September 1854), Balaclava (1854), and Inkermann (November 1854). Fall of Russian fortress at Sebastopol (September 1855) led to negotiations for peace. Finally agreed in Paris 1856 that Russia would cede South Bessarabia to Moldavia.
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Unionists - Confederates.
Conflict between Unionists and Confederates. Dealt with two great issues: the nature of the Federal Union and the relative power of the states and central government; and the existence of Black slavery. When Lincoln and the Republican PartyÆs election demonstrated that the South could no longer expect to control the high offices of state, seven Southern states withdrew from the Union and established the Confederate States of America.
War broke out (12 April 1861) when the Southern batteries opened fire on a Union emplacement in the harbour of Charlottesville. Lincoln at first defined the issue as preservation of the Union, without any reference to slavery, but he broadened the war aims (January 1861), proclaiming the emancipation of all slaves in areas then under arms against the government.
The winning strategy began in 1863 when the Unionist General Grant won control of the whole Mississippi valley, isolating the western Confederate states from the rest. After several fierce battles (Gettysburg, Fredericksburg, and the Chattanooga campaign), the SouthÆs position became untenable and General Lee, leader of the Confederate forces, abandoned the Confederate capital in April 1865 and finally capitulated at Appomattox Court House.
The last surrender took place on 26 April.
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France - Prussia.
Marked the end of French hegemony in Europe and the foundation of a German empire. In Napoleon IIIÆs ambition to conquer Prussia, Bismarck saw an opportunity to bring the S German states into unit with the Prussian-led N German states and build a strong German empire. Conflict was sparked off by disputed candidature for the French throne.
The Ems Telegram, sent by Wilhelm I of Prussia refusing the French conditions, succeeded in provoking the French to declare war five days later. After only four weeks the French found themselves trapped at Metz. Main French army tried to relieve them but were surrounded and trapped by Germans at Sedan. French army, with Napoleon III and Macmahon, surrendered.
French resistance continued with the new government, and the Germans then began to besiege Paris. Paris surrendered January 1871. Treaty of Frankfurt drawn up. Germany annexed Alsace and Lorraine, imposed a high war indemnity on France, and occupied northern territory until indemnity paid.
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Britain - Boers.
Wars fought by Britain for the mastery of South Africa. British had made several attempts to re-incorporate the Boers into a South African confederation. First war ended with defeat of British at Majuba Hill and the signing of the Pretoria and London conventions in 1881 and 1884. Second Boer War (1899-1902) can be divided into three phrases - series of Boer successes; counter-offensives by British which captured Pretoria; period of guerilla warfare.
Boers effectively won the peace. Retained control of ænative affairsÆ, won back representative government in 1907, and federated South Africa on their own terms (1910). Nevertheless, British interests in South Africa remained protected.
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Allies {Britain, France, Russia, Japan, and Italy) - Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria).
Origins lay in reaction of other great powers to ambitions of German Empire. The political tensions divided Europe into two camps - the Triple Alliance (Britain, France, and Russia) and the Triple Entente (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy). Catalyst to war was the assassination of heir to Habsburg throne, Franz Ferdinand, in Bosnia. Austria declared war on Serbia. Germany then declared war on Russia and France and invaded neutral Belgium.
This brought the British into the war on the side of the French. Japan joined Britain, as did Italy in 1915. Germany was joined by Turkey (1914) and Bulgaria (1915). Military campaigns centre on France and Belgium in W Europe. First battle of Ypres prevented the Germans from reaching the ports. By the end of 1914 static line of defence had been established from Belgian coast to Switzerland. Position of stalemate reached. 1916 allies launched offensive for the W front but stopped by Germans who attacked French at Verdun. To relieve situation Battle of the Somme was launched but proved indecisive.
In spring 1918 Germany launched major offensive on West but was driven back by the Allies with help from USA. By November, armistice was signed with allies having recaptured Belgium and nearly all French territory. The Treaty of Versailles was drawn up in 1919 assigning responsibility for causing the war to Germany and establishing her liability for reparations payments. Germany lost all overseas territories and considerable territory in Poland. Rhineland demilitarized and occupied by allied forces. Germany called treaty a æDiktatÆ and its harshness was bitterly resented throughout the interwar years.
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Republicans-Nationalists (led by General Franco).
Both sides attracted foreign assistance; Republic from the USSR and the International Brigades and the Nationalists from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Nationalist victory due to balance of foreign aid, to nonintervention on part of the Western democracies, and to greater internal unity in the Nationalist army under Franco.
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Allies (Britain and British Commonwealth, China, France, USA, USSR)-Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan).
Origins lay in three different conflicts which merged after 1941: GermanyÆs desire for expansion, JapanÆs struggle against China, and conflict between Japanese and US interests in the Pacific.
War in Europe caused by German unwillingness to accept Treaty of Versailles, which was systematically dismantled aided by the allied policy of appeasement. Increased German aggression finally resulted in the invasion of Czechoslovakia, after which Britain and France abandoned policy of appeasement and pledged support to Poland which was now threatened.
Germany signed alliance with Russia and invaded Poland. Britain and France then declared war on Germany. Little fighting took place but Germany proceeded to occupy Norway and Denmark. German Blitzkrieg tactics (a combination of tank warfare and airpower) brought about the surrender of Holland in four days, Belgium in three weeks, and France in seven weeks. After failed attempt to gain air supremacy over Britain (Battle of Britain) the invasion of Britain was postponed. Germany then moved east into Greece and Yugoslavia. British military efforts were concentrated against Italy in Mediterranean and North Africa.
Allied forces finally ejected German and Italian forces in mid-1943, invaded Sicily and Italy itself, and forced Italy to make a separate peace. June 1941 Germany invaded her ally Russia and advanced towards Moscow, Leningrad, and the Volga. After two years of occupation and the Battle of Stalingrad in winter 1942-3 (a major turning point in the allied campaign), they were driven out.
Allies launched a second front through invasion of Normandy and Paris was liberated in August. Allies advanced into Germany and linked with the Russians on the River Elbe. Germans surrendered unconditionally at Rheims 7 May 1945.
JapanÆs desire for expansion led to her attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and US declared war on Japan next day (8 December 1941). In reply, Germany and Italy declared war on US. Not until June 1942 did naval victories halt Japanese advance. Fighting continued until 1945 when US dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (6 and 9 August). Japan then surrendered.
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Vietnam-France.
Vietnam controlled by France as colony 1883-1939 and then as a possession 1940-45. Ho Chi Minh proclaimed its independence on 2 September 1945 and French opposed the move. Ho Chi Minh led guerrilla warfare against French which ended in Vietnamese victory at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954.
Agreement signed in Geneva providing temporary division of the country at the 17th parallel of latitude between the communist-dominated North and the US-supported South. Activities of procommunist rebels would lead to the second Vietnam War.
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Communists and non-Communists.
Communist North invaded South after series of border clashes. UN forces intervened driving the invaders back to Chinese frontier. China entered conflict and with North Koreans occupied Seoul. UN forces counterattacked and retook territory south of 38th parallel.
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Britain, France, Israel-Egypt.
In July 1956 Egyptian President Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal following American and British decision not to finance construction of the Aswan Dam. When diplomacy failed, France and Britain planned military action to regain control of the canal, allied with Israel. In October, Israel invaded Egypt.
Britain and France ordered Israel to leave and also landed at Port Said, apparently to enforce the UN ceasefire.
Growing opposition at home, hostile position of USA, and the threatened intervention of the Soviets forced them to withdraw. The outcome of the incident was Israel regaining shipping rights to the canal, though France and Britain lost influence in the area.
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The war between communist North Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam, also known as the Second Indochinese War.
The Geneva settlement had left North Vietnam under communist rule, and the South ruled first by the emperor Bas Dai (until 1955) and then by Ngo Dinh DiemÆs dictatorial regime. From 1961, US aid and numbers of æmilitary advisersÆ increased considerably.
From 1964, US aircraft bombarded the North, and by 1968 over 500,000 troops were involved. These troops were withdrawn in 1973, and hostilities ceased in 1975 when the NorthÆs victory was completed with the capture of Saigon (renamed Ho Chi Minh City).
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Syrian bombings of Israeli villages intensified early 1967. Israeli air force shot down six Syrian planes. In retaliation Abdel Nasser mobilized Egyptian forces near Sinai border.
Israel defeated Egyptian forces and established air superiority. War cost Arabs Old City of Jerusalem, Sinai and Gaza Strip, West Bank, and the Golan Heights.
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Cambodia, South Vietnam, US-North Vietnam, Viet Cong, Khmer Rouge.
Cambodia had achieved independence in 1953, under Prince Norodom Sihanouk. He assumed position of neutrality in Vietnam war and allowed Vietnamese communists sanctuary in Cambodia. In 1970 he was deposed by coup and US and South Vietnam forces invaded Cambodia to destroy communist sanctuaries.
New Cambodian government faced growing threat from Cambodian communists (Khmer Rouge). US launched series of raids by which it hoped to halt Khmer activity but, after five years of civil war, Phnom Penh fell to Khmer Rouge. In 1979 Vietnamese forces invaded and installed a puppet government.
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Egypt, Syria-Israel
War started on October 6, the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur. Egypt advanced into the Sinai area occupied by Israel and Israel retaliated by invading Egypt. Syria, meanwhile, attacked through the Golan Heights but was forced to retreat with Israel advancing into Syria. Ceasefire arranged through the UN by October 24.
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Iran-lraq.
After the Islamic Revolution in Iran, the Iranians accused Baghdad of encouraging the Arabs of IranÆs Khuzestan province to demand autonomy. Iraq also feared Iranian provocation of its own large ShiÆite population.
Border fighting followed and Iraqi forces advanced into Iran (September 1980). Peace finally agreed in 1988 after deaths of around half a million on each side. Iraq accepted IranÆs terms in 1990.
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Argentinian invasion of the islands governed by Britain since 1933. War ended after three months with Argentinian surrender.
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Declarations of independence by Slovenia, Macedonia, and Croatia considered illegal by central government.
Confrontation between Croatia and Serb-dominated national army developed into civil war. GermanyÆs recognition of the states of Croatia and Slovenia in the middle of December led to Serbian acceptance of peace plan at the end of that month. 10,000 UN peace-keeping soldiers deployed in Croatia.
In April 1992 the UN then recognized independence of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Serbia still continued to battle the secessionists. May saw beginning of bombardment of Sarajevo, followed by bombardment of Dubrovnik at the end of that month. This brought about UN resolution to ban all exports to Yugoslavia.
By July an estimated 700,000 people had been driven out of Bosnia since beginning of war, all due to SerbsÆ policy of æethnic cleansingÆ (aimed at driving Muslims out of areas shared with ethnic Serbs). In August the UN authorized use of military force to insure humanitarian aid getting through to Bosnia. In September Yugoslavia expelled from the UN. Vance-Owen Peace Plan and other peace plans failed in 1993, with ongoing tension and fighting. In 1994-5, ongoing fighting with all three sides (Serb, Bosnian Muslim, Croat) wanting more territory.
In 1994 NATO engaged in military strikes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In March, 1995, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was split into three separate but interdependent peace keeping forces: UNPREDEP (former Yugosalv Republic of Macedonia), UNPROFOR (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and UNCRO (Croatia).
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War caused by Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and failure to comply with UN resolution calling for withdrawal. Hostilities suspended after 43 days of fighting when Iraq accepted the UN resolution.
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Declarations of independence by Slovenia, Macedonia, and Croatia considered illegal by central government.
Confrontation between Croatia and Serb-dominated national army developed into civil war. GermanyÆs recognition of the states of Croatia and Slovenia in the middle of December led to Serbian acceptance of peace plan at the end of that month. 10,000 UN peace-keeping soldiers deployed in Croatia.
In April 1992 the UN then recognized independence of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Serbia still continued to battle the secessionists. May saw beginning of bombardment of Sarajevo, followed by bombardment of Dubrovnik at the end of that month. This brought about UN resolution to ban all exports to Yugoslavia.
By July an estimated 700,000 people had been driven out of Bosnia since beginning of war, all due to SerbsÆ policy of æethnic cleansingÆ (aimed at driving Muslims out of areas shared with ethnic Serbs). In August the UN authorized use of military force to insure humanitarian aid getting through to Bosnia. In September Yugoslavia expelled from the UN. Vance-Owen Peace Plan and other peace plans failed in 1993, with ongoing tension and fighting. In 1994-5, ongoing fighting with all three sides (Serb, Bosnian Muslim, Croat) wanting more territory.
In 1994 NATO engaged in military strikes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In March, 1995, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was split into three separate but interdependent peace keeping forces: UNPREDEP (former Yugosalv Republic of Macedonia), UNPROFOR (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and UNCRO (Croatia).
